Then, they were again given a choice whom to approach. In the following experience phase, the animals interacted directly with the same two humans who behaved either in a generous or selfish manner. The subject could then choose which person to approach in the test phase. In the observation phase, the subject observed two humans interact with a dog demonstrator–one acted generously and fed the dog, and the other acted selfishly and refused to feed the dog. The experimental procedure comprised three parts: baseline (to test whether the subject preferred a person prior to the experiment), observation and testing. Our study investigated whether equally hand-raised, pack-living dogs and wolves can form reputations of humans in a food-giving situation through indirect and/or direct experience. Previous research has focused on whether dogs ( Canis lupus familiaris) can eavesdrop on humans because of their ability to cooperate with humans, however the results are mixed and if they can eavesdrop, it is unknown whether this ability evolved during the domestication process or whether it was inherited from their ancestor, wolves ( Canis lupus). Animals can form reputations of individuals by directly interacting with them or by observing them interact with a third party, i.e., eavesdropping. Reputation is a key component in social interactions of group-living animals and appears to play a role in the establishment of cooperation.
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